Non-fungible tokens, or NFTs, have been making headlines during the past few months as they went from something very few people had heard of, to the latest crypto trend. NFT advocates say that they can fix a significant problem within art and entertainment, while critics only see it as another crypto bubble soon to pop. What are NFTs? Non-fungible tokens are individually unique digital assets — which include songs, images, videos, and even tweets. The metadata that an NFT is composed of makes it unique through various attributes, including size, rarity, the artist’s name, etc. [1] NFTs determine an item’s ownership by storing the details in a digital ledger known as a blockchain. [2] In the context of NFTs, there is some debate over this concept of ownership. Indeed, in various transactions involving NFTs, they do not represent the asset itself, but rather only the record of its ownership. But the inherent characteristics that are commonly mentioned when defining these tokens as a “new form of ownership” include scarcity and uniqueness, trade and interoperability, and immutability. [3] A brief history of NFTs What could be called the ancestor of NFTs dates back to 2012 when “colored coins” were first mentioned in an article titled “bitcoin 2.X (aka Colored Bitcoin) — initial specs”, by Yoni Assia, which describes coins that are made of small denominations of a bitcoin and can be as small as a single satoshi, the smallest unit of a bitcoin. Another article, published by Meni Rosenfeld titled “Overview of Colored Coins”, discussed the potential of these new assets. Further iterations followed over the years, such as the trading cards on Counterparty, a peer-to-peer financial platform and distributed, open-source Internet protocol built on top of the Bitcoin blockchain, as well as Cryptopunks, which are unique characters generated on the Ethereum blockchain, and CryptoKitties, a blockchain-based virtual game that allows players to adopt, raise, and trade virtual cats. These experiments collectively laid the groundwork for the growth the market would witness until NFTs finally reached the mainstream. [2, 3] In fact, monthly sales on OpenSea, an NFT marketplace, reached $95.2 million in February 2021, up from $8 million in January of the same year. [4, 5] [caption id="attachment_7255" align="aligncenter" width="690"] Monthly sales volume on OpenSea, in U.S. dollars. Source: Reuters, 2021[/caption] How much are NFTs worth? Everyone is able to tokenize digital assets and sell them as NFTs, but interest in these past few months has been fueled by headlines of multi-million-dollar sales. In March, Mike Winkelman, a conceptual 3D artist who goes by Beeple, became the third wealthiest living artist after renowned auction house Christie’s sold his digital work, a piece titled “Everydays: The First 5000 Days” for $69.3 million (€58.9 million), breaking all previous NFT sales records. [caption id="attachment_11620" align="alignnone" width="300"] Beeple, Everydays: The First 5000 Days, 2021. Source: Christie's auction house[/caption] In the same month, Kings of Leon, a music group, released one of the first major records to also be released as a collection of NFTs and generated between $1.45 and $2 million in sales in its first five days, and electronic musician Grimes sold digital artwork for around $6 million (€5.1 million). [6, 7, 8] The National Basketball Association (NBA) and its players union (NBPA) partnered with Vancouver-based blockchain company Dapper Labs to develop NBA Top Shot, a new digital platform where fans can buy, sell and trade NBA moments, which are packaged highlight clips that operate like digital trading cards. To date, the platform has generated around $500 million in sales. The most valuable NFT was that of LeBron James dunking against the Houston Rockets, which sold for a reported $387,600. [9] Jack Dorsey, the CEO of Twitter, offered his first tweet, which was published on March 21, 2006, for sale as an NFT. It was sold in late March 2021 for 1,630.58 ether, a cryptocurrency that was equivalent to about $2.9 million. [10] How can artists benefit from NFTs? According to a report published by Citi GPS, the potential revenue of the music business in 2017 was $43 billion, only 12% of that amount flowed to artists. Indeed, the aggregate revenue of the industry is shrunk by various costs including retailer mark-up for music sales (digital or physical), the cost to put on a concert, the costs of running various distribution platforms (e.g. Spotify), and EBITDA, etc... Fees from royalty collection entities, costs for the artist’s manager, record producer, concert promoter, concert agents, and record labels must also be subtracted. The remaining balance is then the only revenue for the artist. [11] In this context, NFTs could become an important and independent revenue stream for musicians by cutting out the middlemen in an industry rife with them. [caption id="attachment_7252" align="aligncenter" width="554"] 2017 Allocation of Music Revenues ($ billions). Source: Citi GPS, 2018[/caption] Digital artists face a major challenge, which lies in the very definition of their work. Digital art is by nature infinitely reproducible. NFTs, which work as public ledgers, offer a technological solution. Collectors can now buy an NFT that essentially acts as a tamper-proof digital receipt, which allows the artist to retain a percentage of the revenue each time their work is sold. NFTs can thus benefit established and emerging digital artists alike by providing additional revenue streams. [12] A double-edged sword It is important to note that the NFT boom also has its drawbacks. Many artists around the world have been reporting the theft and sale of their work on NFT sites without their knowledge or permission. Automated technology, such as a tweet-mining bot which is at the center of many reports of theft, can “tokenize” a tweet or an image in an instant. [13] Another major concern surrounding NFTs is the negative impact they have on the environment. Indeed, they are built on the same blockchain technology used by cryptocurrencies which are yet to solve the issue of their high energy consumption. For instance, a single NFT transaction on the Ethereum network consumes as much as the daily energy used by two American households. [14] [caption id="attachment_7254" align="aligncenter" width="629"] Ethereum energy consumption. Source: Digiconomist, Ethereum Energy Consumption Index[/caption] Most of today’s blockchain networks function on security systems based on special computers called “miners”, which compete to solve complex math puzzles. Mining requires a significant amount of computational power, which in turn causes high electricity consumption. Ethereum’s technology is said to be moving towards a design that would be less computationally intensive to try to compete with more efficient blockchains. The speed of this transformation into an eco-friendlier version of blockchain technology may decide the future of the NFT market in the short term, as some artists feel strongly about climate change trends and are opposed to NFTs because of their environmental impact. [14] With these drawbacks in mind, and considering the recent plunges of Bitcoin and Ether [16] which may scare away potential investors not familiar with the market, it remains an open question whether NFTs can truly become the next form of art and entertainment monetization, or become the next financial bubble to burst. Sources: [1] NonFungible, Non-Fungible Tokens Yearly Report, 2020 [2] Euronews, What are NFTs and why are they suddenly so popular?, 2021 [3] CB Insights, NFTs: Is The Spotlight-Stealing Blockchain Tech A Cash Grab Or The Next Big Thing?, 2021 [4] Digital Trends, A brief history of NFTs, 2021 [5] Medium, The History of Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs), 2019 [6] Reuters, Explainer: NFTs are hot. So what are they, 2021 [7] NME, Kings Of Leon have generated $2million from NFT sales of their new album, 2021 [8] Cointelegraph, ’Breaking new ground is never easy’ — Kings of Leon's NFT release takes in $2M, 2021 [9] SportsPro, What is NBA Top Shot? Dapper Labs’ Caty Tedman explains the NFT platform everyone is talking about, 2021 [10] CNBC, Twitter CEO Jack Dorsey’s first tweet NFT sells for $2.9 million, 2021 [11] Citi GPS, Putting the Band Back Together - Remastering the World of Music, 2018 [12] UCLA, For digital artists, NFTs are promising – and problematic, 2021 [13] ABC News, Artists report discovering their work is being stolen and sold as NFTs, 2021 [14] The Conversation, How nonfungible tokens work and where they get their value – a cryptocurrency expert explains NFTs, 2021 [15] Digiconomist, Ethereum Energy Consumption Index [16] CNBC, Bitcoin’s wild price moves stem from its design, 2021 [17] Christie’s, EVERYDAYS: THE FIRST 5000 DAYS, 2021
Bitcoin has become the biggest trending topic for quite some time now, and rightfully so. The cryptocurrency keeps making headlines due to what seems like an everyday market all-time high, countless success stories of early investors becoming wealthy overnight, and its day-by-day adoption by large institutions. But is this new technology worth the hype or is it a bubble waiting to burst and most importantly is it here to stay? What is Bitcoin? To understand this new concept, it is important to start from the beginning. Bitcoin is considered as the first widely adopted Cryptocurrency, created in 2009 by an unknown person or persons whose pseudonym is Satoshi Nakamoto. One of the main characteristics of Bitcoin is the ability to directly send money and receive money without the involvement of a third party such as a bank or a payment processor like PayPal using a system called “peer-to-peer”. In simple terms, the peer-to-peer system works as a web of users that simultaneously validates each bitcoin transaction. This system is also referred to as “the blockchain” which functions as a ledger of all transactions in the bitcoin network. The blockchain is made up of nodes. These nodes are physical computers ran by individuals that make up the Bitcoin system. When these nodes process a transaction, which requires a great deal of computer processing power, they are rewarded with a small fee. The processing of these transactions is called “Bitcoin mining” and is the very process that generates new Bitcoin. Why does Bitcoin hold value? The reason Bitcoin holds value is the same reason regular currencies hold value: it maintains relative value over time and it is able to capture the faith and belief of the people using it. Historically, commodities and precious materials such as cocoa beans and gold were used as payment methods because society viewed those materials as holding stable value. However, because of the unpracticality of these materials in terms of storage and transportation, many societies turned to minting coins made from metals (Gold, Silver, Copper…) that are inherently valuable and are very durable. After some time, these coins were replaced by notes that do not hold the intrinsic value of coins but were still tied to commodities such as gold in such a way that they were exchangeable for a set amount of said commodities. Today, countries moved away from the gold standard and started using Fiat currency. Fiat currency is issued by the government and not tied to any commodity, though the only value they hold is the faith that they will be accepted by individuals and governments. Most societies have determined that fiat currencies are the most durable and the least likely to deteriorate or depreciate. The chart below shows the different traits of money across Gold, Fiat (USD), and Bitcoin: As seen in Fig. 1, Bitcoin does a great job compared to fiat currencies and even holds an upper hand when it comes to decentralization because of the nature of the blockchain system. It is also Smart, in other words, the whole Bitcoin transaction system can be modified or updated in real-time, although this is very hard to do because all the nodes in the blockchain must simultaneously validate the change. Ray Dalio, founder of the world’s largest hedge fund Bridgewater and esteemed economist pointed out the utility of Bitcoin in terms of wealth storage in times of uncertainty within the equity market. In the current economic climate, where governments are looking to depreciate their currencies as the equity markets are booming and bond yields are converging towards 0%, Bitcoin is a reasonable asset to store wealth into, the same as gold or real-estate, as it is not controlled by a government entity and cannot be affected by any incoming government monetary policy. Another valuable characteristic of Bitcoin, which gold lacks, lies in its exchangeability ie. the ability to make purchases with the currency. For example, if any given person wants to start using Bitcoin, all they need to do is download a Bitcoin wallet which is an app that allows you to send and receive Bitcoin. They can then purchase Bitcoins using that same wallet. Then in order to send Bitcoin all they would need to do is scan a QR code of the receiver which will then take them to the wallet, they can then enter the amount of money they want to send to complete the transactions. However, this very quality poses a risk as excess freedom and privacy in value exchange can lead to increased malicious activity such as hacks, fraud, and theft. The current state of Bitcoin In the current market, top investment bank leaders have shown resistance towards Bitcoin saying that it is a bubble waiting to burst and that it would eventually become irrelevant. One of these is Jamie Damion, CEO of JPMorgan Chase, who stated that Bitcoin will be ultimately be shut down by the government when the currency starts being used for malicious intent. He added that, at its core, Bitcoin is not an actual currency and holds no value. This view has been shared by the most successful investor, Warren Buffett, CEO of Berkshire Hathaway, who also referred to the asset as ‘a rat poisoned square. However, despite the attacks of highly esteemed personalities within the financial industry, cryptocurrency was crowned the top-performing asset class of 2020-21 with an 800% return. Bitcoin saw a surge at the beginning of 2021 and is currently valued at 59,000 USD per coin with over $1 trillion in circulation. This surge was due to the adoption of digital currency by very large companies. One of such companies is MicroStrategy (MSTR: NASDAQ), a publicly-traded business intelligence firm, which made headlines by buying $2.19 Billion worth of Bitcoin, equivalent to 90,895 BTC. In recent news, Elon Musk CEO of Tesla announced that it is now possible to buy a Tesla using Bitcoin. The electric vehicle manufacturer also reported to the SEC that it purchased $1.5 billion of Bitcoin and that the bitcoins it will receive from clients buying its vehicles will not be converted to any other asset and will instead be kept in its original form. Additionally, Morgan Stanley, one of the biggest investment banks in the world, started offering its rich clients exclusive access to three funds that will allow them to own Bitcoin. However, the bank made it clear that this move is solely for clients with a ‘high-risk tolerance’ and who own $2 Million USD minimum in assets with the firm. These moves will encourage other businesses in adopting the digital currency as a form of payment and push it into the mainstream. Overall, it is apparent that Bitcoin has the main characteristics of a viable and reasonable asset to store wealth in. However, it is important to acknowledge that it is a relatively new concept that can and most likely will be subject to government regulations, cyber-attacks, fraud, quantum computing, and other threats that are not yet on the horizon. Citibank stated that Bitcoin could become the form of payment of choice for international trade. Citibank also noted that the future of Bitcoin is still blurred, however, there are many signs leading towards the acceptance of the digital currency by the public. Nigeria, the global leader in Digital Currency Trade le="text-align: justify;">Nigeria presents a particular case. Currently, Nigeria holds the position of the largest Bitcoin market by trading volume in Africa, and the second-largest global Bitcoin market behind the USA according to the New York-based cryptocurrency trading platform Paxful, with more than 33% of Nigerians either using or owning Cryptocurrency. This is due to the reliance on the peer-to-peer phone payments method, lack of formal payment processing infrastructure, as well as the severe devaluation of the Naira bringing about tight restrictions on offshore transactions and limited cash withdrawals. Bitcoin has made it possible for Nigerians to bypass the $100 dollars withdrawal limit on the naira debit card. However, in February 2021 Nigeria’s Central Bank issued a letter stating that banks are no longer allowed to facilitate any transactions with companies that deal with cryptocurrency. The reason behind this immediate ban is to prevent the underlying fraud and money laundering that the country has been struggling with which is facilitated by the privacy and lack of regulatory policy on the digital currency. As it is widely known, the digital currencies transactions are private, do not involve any third party entity, and do not follow a regulatory policy which is one of the pitfalls of the currency that will ultimately need to be addressed if the currency wants to stay relevant and become more mainstream as a currency. Sources: https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/100314/why-do-bitcoins-have-value.asp\ https://www.cnbc.com/2021/03/17/bitcoin-morgan-stanley-is-the-first-big-us-bank-to-offer-wealthy-clients-access-to-bitcoin-funds.html https://www.bridgewater.com/research-and-insights/our-thoughts-on-bitcoin https://edition.cnn.com/2021/03/24/tech/tesla-bitcoin-elon-musk/index.html https://www.investopedia.com/tech/what-will-happen-bitcoin-next-decade/#:~:text=Citi%20noted%20that%20Bitcoin's%20future,the%20digital%20asset%2C%20noted%20Citi. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/3/25/nigerias-crackdown-on-bitcoin-echoes-global-crypto-conundrum https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-56169917 https://www.statista.com/chart/18345/crypto-currency-adoption/ https://bitcoin.org/en/how-it-works#:~:text=The%20block%20chain%20is%20a,actually%20owned%20by%20the%20spender. https://www.freshbooks.com/hub/accounting/what-is-a-ledger#:~:text=A%20ledger%20is%20a%20book,financial%20transactions%20over%20a%20period. https://www.npr.org/sections/money/2011/04/27/135604828/why-we-left-the-gold-standard
Africa's path to technological advancement presents a unique opportunity for Blockchain in Africa to leapfrog traditional barriers and catalyze a new era of innovation. With its vast potential for disruption, blockchain technology stands not just as a digital marvel but as a beacon for progress across the continent, from enhancing mobile payment systems to revolutionizing infrastructure development. With the Internet of Things (IoT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI), low banking rates and booming mobile services, blockchain technology represents a real opportunity for Africa. In fact, beyond crypto-currency (virtual currency not guaranteed by the central bank such as Bitcoin), the blockchain consists of a decentralized and non-falsifiable register, allowing transactions to be validated almost instantly and without a central control unit. Called a trust machine, the blockchain technology will provide the confidence that the continent still lacks today and will contribute to its development by streamlining its financial circuit. In addition to its "secure" and "transparent" nature, the attractiveness of the blockchain lies in the diversity of its applications, including agriculture, public administration, finance etc. This disruptive technology, which first appeared in 2008 in the aftermath of the global financial crisis, can be used in all areas where a trusted intermediary is required. Although it is difficult at the moment to assess the long-term effects of the use of blockchain, the paradigm shift that this technology induces will impact many areas. Emerging countries, particularly in Africa, are an exceptional field of exploration. In the next session, we will present some examples of the use of this technology in a number of African countries. Tunisia: Since 2017, the Central Bank of Tunisia has been seeking innovative decashing solutions to stem the culture of cash transactions that hinders banking development and promotes illegal trade. Tunisian institutions became a driving force in the use of blockchain technology. Thus, the National Post office, in collaboration with DigitUS (Tunisian startup specialized in crypto-finance) and Monetas (Swiss software company) offers DigiCash, a virtual portfolio that allows the user to send and receive money, pay bills, etc. This is an example of a successful public private partnership that helped Tunisia become the first country in the world to issue its national currency via an application that operates through blockchain. Ghana: In Ghana, until recently, the majority of landowners was unregistered and did not hold property ownership titles. Thanks to Bitland, a startup specializing in blockchain technology, it has become possible to register lands and real property rights and store information in a transparent, public and secure manner. In the Kumasi metropolitan region of southern Ghana, Bitland registered land titles in a public blockchain for 28 communities. The startup now hopes to expand its project to a national or even continental scale in order to eradicate corruption and unlock billions in fixed capital for infrastructure development. Kenya: Headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya, BitHub Africa is a blockchain accelerator company founded in December 2015 to boost the development of blockchain solutions in Africa through providing consulting services to organizations interested in deploying blockchain solutions across Africa and Middle East and hosting training developers for this purpose. The company aims to play a significant role in helping the country to reach its Vision 2030 goals and become a world leader in adopting the blockchain technology. In fact, BitHub Africa is working with local regulators to foster Kenya’s blockchain-related technology policies and actively promote regulatory policies that are conducive to ICO (Initial Coin Offering) and crypto-currencies. South Africa: In South Africa, the Blockchain Academy in Cape Town offers training in crypto-currencies and blockchain technology to local entrepreneurs and startups. Established in 2015, the academy’s main focus is on capacity building in the digital currencies and blockchain technology industry by providing specialized training and consulting services in Africa and Middle East. Besides, the South African Reserve Bank has chosen to experiment an accounting system based on Ethereum for bank transfers. The principle of the Ethereum blockchain allows decentralized applications to have a database, without a centralized server, which lists all transactions and exchanges in a secure way. Tanzania: In 2018, the Tanzanian government had weeded out thousands of “ghost workers” in the public sector through the implementation of the blockchain technology. This audit work has been beneficial to the State allowing the government to achieve substantial savings. In fact, the Tanzanian state lost no less than 430 billion Tanzanian shillings every month in the payment of fictitious wages. This means that the equivalent of 195 million dollars can now be distributed properly, which will undoubtedly have a positive social impact on the country. Ethiopia: Ethiopia is the fifth largest coffee producer in the world. 95% of the country's coffee is produced in small rural farms, which suffer from a lack of organization. This situation increases their vulnerability to pressure from intermediaries who are not always reliable. The lack of traceability does not provide buyers with information on the supply chain of agricultural products. To overcome this lack of organization, the Ethiopian government has signed a memorandum of understanding with the Hong Kong-based blockchain company IOHK. This partnership aims to explore new possibilities for the use of blockchain in the agricultural sector. Thus, all the steps of the process are recorded in an eBook that serves as an online agricultural register where users can trace data on the origin and process of the production. After presenting some key illustrations of the use of the blockchain technology in different African countries, we will focus in the following on the current situation of the use of blockchain in Morocco before discussing the challenges facing the implementation of blockchain solutions in Africa. Blockchain in Morocco: Where does the Kingdom stand today? While Bitcoin was quickly banned in Morocco, the technology behind it (the blockchain) is at the heart of many concerns both in the public and the private sectors. Morocco is indeed at the awareness stage of the great potential of this technology. Aware of the great potential of this technology, Morocco has recently launched an initiative that is led by the National Telecommunications Regulatory Agency (ANRT) through its "Soft Center" R&D unit. In 2018, ANRT has also set up a think tank on the subject comprising the Soft Centre, the Sayarh and Menjra Cabinet, Numa Casablanca (current "Impact Lab" which is a Moroccan start-up working on improving the start-up ecosystem in Morocco) and Adalia School of Business (Digital Training and Innovation School). The final goal of the reflection is to create a national blockchain, as part of an Open Innovation approach, aiming to facilitate the creation and deployment of fintech services and smart contracts for individuals and startups. For stakeholders, the establishment of this technological infrastructure will foster the emergence of a national IT industry. In addition to this project, another important initiative is expected to be launched in the Dakhla region in 2019. The project is about the installation of a 900 MW wind farm, equipped with a datacenter for mining to produce clean energy that will be used for running servers for the blockchain. Brookstone Partners, a US private equity fund is behind this initiative with a budget allocation up to $3 billion over a period of 5 years. Blockchain in Africa: What are the challenges for Blockchain solutions? Energy consumption: The most important challenge to the adoption of the blockchain is energy. The mining activity to validate transactions and register them is particularly energy-intensive. For example, the blockchain of the bitcoin would today consume between 300 MW and 10 GW, or more or less the electricity consumption of Ireland (3 GW). The bitcoin blockchain alone would consume 100 times the power used by all of Google's servers that is difficult to ensure given the energy situation in Africa. In fact, according to the 2018 World Energy Outlook issued by International Energy Agency (IEA), the population without access to electricity remains at 600 million in sub-Saharan Africa, totaling 57% of population with 15 countries in the region having access rates below 25%. Hence, technological developments, particularly those related to blockchain, could overcome this challenge. This is the case for micro-grids, local networks where both residents and companies are consumers and producers of renewable energy. Technological issue: In addition to the energy challenge, the blockchain also faces technical challenges. It is about the complexity of this tool and its data processing capacity, which is quite limited. For example, the bitcoin blockchain can process 600,000 to 700,000 transactions per day, far behind the 2000 transactions per second processed by the VISA transaction network. Moreover, some risks are related to the network security and resilience of the system against potential cyber attacks as well as protection of data privacy even though the probability of its occurrence is low given the complexity of the blockchain technology. Regulation: Finally, and in order to ensure a better deployment of this technology, African governments must commit themselves to defining a legal and regulatory framework that remains not formalized so far in most of the countries. In this respect, we can mention the experience of Estonia, which has made great progress in this area and remains a very good example from which Africa can draw lessons. Blockchain technology: Way to achieve "leapfrogging" for Africa Last but not least, the introduction of blockchain technology is not an epiphenomenon. It is a technology with real transformative potential that is of interest to many African countries. From this point of view, the blockchain can help countries to overcome technological transitions and enable the continent to achieve another "leapfrogging”, similar to what has happened with mobile phones. However, it is necessary to overcome the challenges related to blockchain technology in order to turn it into the driver of the next digital revolution in Africa! Safae Laghmari – Research Analyst Sources : https://newconomy.media/news/africa-adopting-blockchain-to-weed-out-ghost-workers/ https://www.challenge.ma/blockchain-le-maroc-entre-dans-la-course-102794/ https://financenews.press.ma/article/bourse-finances/blockchain-le-maroc-va-se-doter-d-une-plateforme-nationale https://www.usine-digitale.fr/article/la-blockchain-un-formidable-levier-de-developpement-pour-l-afrique.N710619 https://afrique.latribune.fr/think-tank/tribunes/2018-04-09/les-premiers-pas-concrets-de-la-blockchain-en-afrique-774614.html https://www.jeuneafrique.com/mag/645909/economie/tunisie-la-blockchain-un-levier-de-croissance/ https://cio-mag.com/afrique-la-blockchain-est-elle-une-reelle-innovation-de-rupture-pour-les-gouvernements/ https://www.afrikatech.com/fr/divers/technologie-blockchain-afrique/ http://blockchainacademy.co.za/ https://btcmanager.com/blockchain-accelerator-bithub-africa-launches-in-kenya/?q=/blockchain-accelerator-bithub-africa-launches-in-kenya/& https://www.cryptokemet.com/ghana-bitland-cadastre-blockchain/ https://telquel.ma/2018/03/05/nouvelles-tendances-blockchain_1582809/?utm_source=tq&utm_medium=normal_post https://www.medias24.com/MAROC/ECONOMIE/ENTREPRISES/184873-Un-investissement-americain-a-Dakhla-eoliennes-900-MW-d-electricite-et-blockchain.html https://qz.com/africa/1447621/africa-electrification-rate-slowest-globally/ https://www.iea.org/commentaries/population-without-access-to-electricity-falls-below-1-billion https://www.ccn.com/bitcoin-100-times-powerful-google https://medium.com/coinmonks/blockchain-scaling-30c9e1b7db1b https://maroc-diplomatique.net/numa-casablanca-reprend-sa-marque/